Prestinaci, F., Pezzotti, P. & Pantosti, A. Antimicrobial resistance: a global multifaceted phenomenon. Pathogens Global Health. 109, 309–318 (2015).
Google Scholar
Urban-Chmiel, R. et al. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria—A review. Antibiotics 11, 1079 (2022).
Google Scholar
Humphreys, G. & Fleck, F. United nations meeting on antimicrobial resistance. World Health Organ. Bull. World Health Organ. 94, 638 (2016).
Google Scholar
Murray, C. J. et al. Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis. Lancet 399, 629–655 (2022).
Google Scholar
Naghavi, M. et al. Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance 1990–2021: a systematic analysis with forecasts to 2050. Lancet 404, 1199–1226 (2024).
Google Scholar
Henly, H. Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): An update.
Organization, W. H., Programme, U. U. N. E. & Health, W. O. f. A. One Health Joint Plan of Action (2022–2026): Working Together for the Health of Humans, Animals, Plants and the Environment. (World Health Organization, 2022).
Aslam, B. et al. AMR and sustainable development goals: at a crossroads. Globalization Health. 20, 73 (2024).
Google Scholar
Kim, D. W. & Cha, C. J. Antibiotic resistome from the One-Health perspective: Understanding and controlling antimicrobial resistance transmission. Exp. Mol. Med. 53, 301–309 (2021).
Google Scholar
Ijaz, M. et al. Morphological identification and resistance profile of antibiotic and heavy Metals-Resistant bacteria in hospital sewage of Peshawar. Advancements Life Sci. 10, 452–456 (2023).
Google Scholar
Wellington, E. M. et al. The role of the natural environment in the emergence of antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Lancet. Infect. Dis. 13, 155–165 (2013).
Google Scholar
Fuzi, M. & Sokurenko, E. Commensal fitness advantage May contribute to the global dissemination of multidrug-resistant lineages of bacteria—the case of uropathogenic E. coli. Pathogens 12, 1150 (2023).
Google Scholar
Vezeau, N. & Kahn, L. Current Understanding and knowledge gaps regarding wildlife as reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance. Am. J. Vet. Res. 85, 577–585 (2024).
Plaza-Rodríguez, C. et al. Wildlife as sentinels of antimicrobial resistance in germany?? Front. Veterinary Sci. 7, 627821 (2021).
Google Scholar
McDougall, F. K., Boardman, W. S. & Power, M. L. Characterization of beta-lactam-resistant Escherichia coli from Australian fruit bats indicates anthropogenic origins. Microb. Genomics. 7, 000571 (2021).
Google Scholar
Nowakiewicz, A. et al. Bats as a reservoir of resistant Escherichia coli: A methodical view. Can we fully estimate the scale of resistance in the reservoirs of free-living animals? Res. Vet. Sci. 128, 49–58 (2020).
Google Scholar
Benavides, J. A. et al. Long-term maintenance of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli carried by vampire bats and shared with livestock in Peru. Sci. Total Environ. 810, 152045 (2022).
Google Scholar
De Silva, O. et al. Antimicrobial resistance including extended spectrum beta lactamases (ESBL) and carbapenemase in Feacal E. coli isolates from bats. Sri Lanka Vet. J. 70 (2023).
Garcês, A. et al. First report on extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing Escherichia coli from European free-tailed bats (Tadarida teniotis) in portugal: A one-health approach of a hidden contamination problem. J. Hazard. Mater. 370, 219–224 (2019).
Google Scholar
Nowak, K. et al. Highly diverse and antimicrobial susceptible Escherichia coli display a Naïve bacterial population in fruit bats from the Republic of congo. PLoS One. 12, e0178146 (2017).
Google Scholar
Cláudio, V. C. et al. Bacteria richness and antibiotic-resistance in bats from a protected area in the Atlantic forest of southeastern Brazil. PloS One. 13, e0203411 (2018).
Google Scholar
Foysal, M. J., Neilan, B. A. & Timms, V. The impact of anthropogenic activities on antimicrobial and heavy metal resistance in aquatic environments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 91, e02317–02324 (2025).
Google Scholar
Ramos, B., Rosalino, L. M., Palmeira, J. D., Torres, R. T. & Cunha, M. V. Antimicrobial resistance in commensal Staphylococcus aureus from wild ungulates is driven by agricultural land cover and livestock farming. Environ. Pollut. 303, 119116 (2022).
Google Scholar
Yang, L. et al. Urbanization and land use regulate soil vulnerability to antibiotic contamination in urban green spaces. J. Hazard. Mater. 465, 133363 (2024).
Google Scholar
Arnold, K. E., Williams, N. J. & Bennett, M. Disperse abroad in the land’: the role of wildlife in the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance. Biol. Lett. 12, 20160137 (2016).
Google Scholar
Mahmood-Ul-Hassan, M., Gulraiz, T. L., Rana, S. A. & Javid, A. The diet of Indian flying-foxes (Pteropus giganteus) in urban habitats of Pakistan. Acta Chiropterologica. 12, 341–347 (2010).
Google Scholar
Ahmed, T., Murugavel, B., Sharma, B., Ul-Husan, A. & Salim, M. Pteropus medius, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2024, e. T18725A230958344. In (2025).
Ahmed, T. et al. A cross-sectional survey on fruit bat-human interaction in pakistan; one health perspective. One Health Outlook. 5, 3 (2023).
Google Scholar
Ahmed, T. et al. Forest Cover and Water Resources as Nature-based Solutions to Mitigate Heat Stress in Pteropus medius: Key Insights from Thermoregulatory Behaviors. Proceeding of the Royal Society B (manucript under review) (2025).
Obodoechi, L. O. et al. Antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli isolates from frugivorous (Eidolon helvum) and insectivorous (Nycteris hispida) bats in Southeast nigeria, with detection of CTX-M-15 producing isolates. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 75, 101613 (2021).
Google Scholar
Rojas-Sereno, Z. E. et al. Detection of antimicrobial-resistant enterobacterales in insectivorous bats from Chile. Royal Soc. Open. Sci. 10, 231177 (2023).
Google Scholar
McEvoy, J. F. et al. Movements of Indian flying Fox in Myanmar as a guide to human-bat interface sites. EcoHealth 18, 204–216 (2021).
Google Scholar
McDougall, F. K., Speight, N., Funnell, O., Boardman, W. S. & Power, M. L. Dynamics of antimicrobial resistance carriage in Koalas (Phascolarctos Cinereus) and pteropid bats (Pteropus Poliocephalus) before, during and after wildfires. Microb. Ecol. 87, 39 (2024).
Google Scholar
Roy, K., Saha, G. K. & Mazumdar, S. How free-ranging Indian flying Fox (Pteropus medius) forage in urban areas? A study from kolkata, India. J. Urban Ecol. 10, juae007 (2024).
Google Scholar
Murugavel, B., Kandula, S., Somanathan, H. & Kelber, A. Home ranges, directionality and the influence of Moon phases on the movement ecology of Indian flying Fox males in Southern India. Biology Open. 12, bio059513 (2023).
Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Verdugo, A., Lozano-Huntelman, N., Cruz-Loya, M., Savage, V. & Yeh, P. Compounding effects of climate warming and antibiotic resistance. Iscience 23, 101024 (2020).
Google Scholar
Burnham, J. P. Climate change and antibiotic resistance: a deadly combination. Therapeutic Adv. Infect. Disease. 8, 2049936121991374 (2021).
Google Scholar
MacFadden, D. R., McGough, S. F., Fisman, D., Santillana, M. & Brownstein, J. S. Antibiotic resistance increases with local temperature. Nat. Clim. Change. 8, 510–514 (2018).
Google Scholar
McGough, S. F., MacFadden, D. R., Hattab, M. W., Mølbak, K. & Santillana, M. Rates of increase of antibiotic resistance and ambient temperature in europe: a cross-national analysis of 28 countries between 2000 and 2016. Eurosurveillance 25, 1900414 (2020).
Google Scholar
Li, W. et al. Association between antibiotic resistance and increasing ambient temperature in china: an ecological study with nationwide panel data. The Lancet Reg. Health–Western Pacific 30 (2023).
Wong, C. Antibiotic resistance is a growing threat-is climate change making it worse? Nature (2024).
Stenseth, N. C. et al. Plague dynamics are driven by climate variation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103, 13110–13115 (2006).
Usman Qamar, M. & Aatika. Vol. 18 535–539 (Taylor & Francis, 2023).
Ratnayake, H. U., Kearney, M. R., Govekar, P., Karoly, D. & Welbergen, J. A. Forecasting wildlife die-offs from extreme heat events. Anim. Conserv. 22, 386–395 (2019).
Google Scholar
Harris, S., Morris, C., Morris, D., Cormican, M. & Cummins, E. Antimicrobial resistant Escherichia coli in the municipal wastewater system: effect of hospital effluent and environmental fate. Sci. Total Environ. 468, 1078–1085 (2014).
Google Scholar
Organization, W. H. Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human Medicine (World Health Organization, 2019).
Ahsan, A. et al. Antibiotic resistance pattern and molecular detection of ESBL-associated genes in E. coli from surface and wastewater of Islamabad capital territory, Pakistan. J. Water Health. 20, 601–609 (2022).
Google Scholar
Price, M. ArcGIS Pro (McGraw-Hill, 2020).
Imran, A., Zaman, Q. & Afzal, M. Temporal trends in the peak monsoonal precipitation events over Northeast Pakistan. Pakistan J. Meteorology 10 (2013).
McMichael, L. A., Edson, D. & Field, H. Measuring physiological stress in Australian flying-fox populations. EcoHealth 11, 400–408 (2014).
Google Scholar
Gerbáčová, K. et al. The faecal Microbiome of building-dwelling insectivorous bats (Myotis myotis and rhinolophus hipposideros) also contains antibiotic-resistant bacterial representatives. Curr. Microbiol. 77, 2333–2344 (2020).
Google Scholar
Kang, H. Sample size determination and power analysis using the G* power software. Journal Educational Evaluation Health Professions 18 (2021).
Stelling, J. M. & O’Brien, T. F. Surveillance of antimicrobial resistance: the WHONET program. Clin. Infect. Dis. 24, S157–S168 (1997).
Google Scholar
Magiorakos, A. P. et al. Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 18, 268–281 (2012).
Google Scholar
Wayne, A., Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute; CLSI. and. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 20th Informational Supplement. CLSI document (2017). (2011).
Miller, R. et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of aquatic bacteria: quality control disk diffusion ranges for Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida ATCC 33658 at 22 and 28 C. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41, 4318–4323 (2003).
Google Scholar
Wayne, A., Clinical, Standards Institute, L. & CLSI. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. 20th Informational Supplement. CLSI document (2017). (2011).
Ghaffar, A. et al. In Improvement of Plant Production in the Era of Climate Change1–34 (CRC, 2022).
Astola, H., Häme, T., Sirro, L., Molinier, M. & Kilpi, J. Comparison of Sentinel-2 and Landsat 8 imagery for forest variable prediction in boreal region. Remote Sens. Environ. 223, 257–273 (2019).
Google Scholar
AHC. Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Pilot in Healthy Food Animals.Animal Husbandry Commissioner, Ministry of National Food Security and Research, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan. (2023).
Organization, W. H. AWaRe Classification of Antibiotics for Evaluation and Monitoring of Use. WHO (2023). (2023).
Amin, M. T. et al. Comparative evaluation of management practices among large-scale broiler farms of punjab, Pakistan. Heliyon 11, e42381 (2025).
Li, X., Mowlaboccus, S., Jackson, B., Cai, C. & Coombs, G. W. Antimicrobial resistance among clinically significant bacteria in wildlife: an overlooked one health concern. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agent. 64(3), 107251 (2024).
Abbas, G. et al. High rates of CTX-M group-1 extended-spectrum β-lactamases producing Escherichia coli from pets and their owners in faisalabad, Pakistan. Infect. Drug Resist. 12, 571–578 (2019).
Jones, D. C. et al. One health and global health view of antimicrobial susceptibility through the eye of aeromonas: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. 62, 106848 (2023).
Google Scholar
Mohsin, M. et al. High prevalence of CTX-M-15-Type ESBL-producing E. coli from migratory avian species in Pakistan. Front. Microbiol. 8, 285845 (2017).
Google Scholar
Cruz-Loya, M. et al. Stressor interaction networks suggest antibiotic resistance co-opted from stress responses to temperature. ISME J. 13, 12–23 (2019).
Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Verdugo, A., Lozano-Huntelman, N., Cruz-Loya, M., Savage, V. & Yeh, P. Compounding effects of climate warming and antibiotic resistance. IScience 23 (2020).
Kournoutou, G. G. & Dinos, G. Azithromycin through the lens of the COVID-19 treatment. Antibiotics 11, 1063 (2022).
Google Scholar
Ul Mustafa, Z., Salman, M., Aldeyab, M., Kow, C. S. & Hasan, S. S. Antimicrobial consumption among hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Pakistan. SN Compr. Clin. Med. 3, 1691–1695 (2021).
Google Scholar
Mustika, Y. R. et al. Molecular detection of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli from Bat caves on Lombok Island. Open. Veterinary J. 14, 699 (2024).
Google Scholar
Mohsin, M. et al. High prevalence of CTX-M-15-Type ESBL-producing E. coli from migratory avian species in Pakistan. Front. Microbiol. 8, 2476 (2017).
Google Scholar
Madec, J. Y., Haenni, M., Nordmann, P. & Poirel, L. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase/AmpC-and carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in animals: a threat for humans? Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 23, 826–833 (2017).
Google Scholar
Biswas, R., Debnath, C., Amla, A. K. P., Barua, R. & Samanta, I. First Report of ESBL/Beta-lactamase Producing Enterobacteriaceae in Indian Fruit Bat: the Primitive and Sustainable Species of Ecosystem as a Reservoir of (Antimicrobial Resistance Volume 9| Issue 1| December, 2022).
Umair, M. et al. Prevalence and genetic relatedness of extended spectrum-β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli among humans, cattle, and poultry in Pakistan. Microb. Drug Resist. 25, 1374–1381 (2019).
Google Scholar
Jabeen, K., Zafar, A. & Hasan, R. Frequency and sensitivity pattern of extended spectrum beta lactamase producing isolates in a tertiary care hospital laboratory of Pakistan. J. Pakistan Med. Association. 55, 436 (2005).
Thomas, C. M. & Nielsen, K. M. Mechanisms of, and barriers to, horizontal gene transfer between bacteria. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 3, 711–721 (2005).
Google Scholar
Abrar, S. et al. Distribution of Bla CTX – M, Bla TEM, Bla SHV and Bla OXA genes in Extended-spectrum-β-lactamase-producing clinical isolates: A three-year multi-center study from lahore, Pakistan. Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control. 8, 80 (2019).
Google Scholar
Waheed, A. et al. Prevalence of extended spectrum [beta]-lactamase SHV and OXA producing gram negative bacteria at tertiary care hospital of lahore, Pakistan. Pakistan J. Zool. 51, 2345 (2019).
Google Scholar
Ali, A. et al. Lentic and effluent water of Delhi-NCR: A reservoir of multidrug-resistant bacteria harbouring Bla CTX-M, Bla TEM and Bla SHV type ESBL genes. J. Water Health. 19, 592–603 (2021).
Google Scholar
Lio, M. S., Favara, R., Maugeri, G., Barchitta, A., Agodi, A. & M. & How antimicrobial resistance is linked to climate change: an overview of two intertwined global challenges. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 20, 1681 (2023).
Google Scholar
Lemos, L. N., Pedrinho, A., de Vasconcelos, A. T. R., Tsai, S. M. & Mendes, L. W. Amazon deforestation enriches antibiotic resistance genes. Soil Biol. Biochem. 153, 108110 (2021).
Google Scholar
Ahmed, T., Tahir, M. F., Boden, L. & Kingston, T. Future directions for one health research: regional and sectoral gaps. One Health. 17, 100584 (2023).
Google Scholar
Qiu, Y. et al. Assessment of the implementation of pakistan’s National action plan on antimicrobial resistance in the agriculture and food sectors. Antibiotics 13, 206 (2024).
Google Scholar
link